Glossary
Archaeologists use a lot of technical terms in
their work to describe particular periods, techniques
and artefacts. Where possible we have tried to
explain these terms as we have gone along. We have,
however, included the following glossary for ease
of reference. This is not an exhaustive list and
only includes terms relevant to this particular
website or the Teesside area.
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A
Aerial Photography
An important survey technique in the discovery
and recording of archaeological sites. See also
our aerial photography project page.
Alum
The processing of alum from shale is often considered
as the earliest chemical industry in the British
Isles. The alum industry began in Yorkshire from
the first decade of the 1600s with large quarries
at Guisborough, Loftus and Boulby. Alum was principally
used in the textile industry as a fixing agent
for dyes. It was also used by tanners to produce
a more supple leather.
Amphorae
The remains of these pottery vessels can be found
on Roman sites. They were large storage vessels
imported from the continent and contained olive
oil, wine and fish paste.
Anglo-Saxons
The Anglo-Saxons were Germanic and Scandinavian
invaders who settled in Britain from around 400AD
in a period traditionally known as the Dark Ages.
Anti-invasion defences
During World War II there was a real threat of
a German invasion. To defend against this a string
of defences was set up rapidly across the nation.
These defences consisted of obstacles such as
anti-tank cubes, ditches, barbed wire and mine
fields. Although they were not called upon, their
remains now stand as a monument to this harrowing
time of conflict.
Archaeology
The study of the human past through investigation
of material remains.
Artefact
Any portable object used, modified or made by humans.
For example pottery, weapons and coins.
Assemblage
A group of artefacts from a particular time or
place. back to top
B
Barrow
See Burial Mound
Beaker Period
Beaker is a term given to a period of time from
the later Neolithic to the early Bronze Age (2000BC – 1600
BC). The period is named after a characteristic
pottery known as beaker ware which is a style
of well made, highly decorated pottery introduced
from the continent. Beaker decoration is highly
distinctive with impressed encircling lines made
with cord or combs on the fabric surface. These
designs are highly decorative and geometric and
include herringbone and lozenge patterns.
Blast Furnace
The blast furnace is a large structure approximately
30 metres high lined with firebricks which can
withstand temperatures of 2000 degrees centigrade.
The purpose of the furnace is to reduce iron
ores into a liquid metal which can be tapped
off and separated from the resulting slag. Such
furnaces are normally heated by blasting pre-heated
air to the base of the furnace through nozzles.
Boldon Book
William the Conqueror’s Domesday Book did
not record manors north of the Tees. The first
complete survey we have of land holdings north
of the Tees was ordered in 1183 by Bishop Hugh
de Pudsey of Durham, known as the `Boldon Book`
Brigantes
During the Iron Age and Roman period the country
was broken down into a series of tribal units.
The main tribe in the Teesside area would have
been the Brigantes who occupied a large part
of modern Yorkshire during the period.
Bronze Age
A time period covering the years from about 1,800
BC to 700 BC. The Bronze Age lies between the
Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Iron Age. In
Europe the Bronze Age is characterised by the
emergence of more complex societies who produced
bronze tools and weapons. These people developed
greater levels of tribalism and a hierarchical
society led by tribal chiefs. The dominant monument
type is the burial mound which usually contains
the remains of a single important individual.
Burial Mound
A mound of earth or stone covering one or more
burials (inhumations or cremations). Burial mounds
are also known as barrows, cairns or tumuli.
Burial mounds take a number of forms including
round barrows and long barrows. Burial mounds
are most often associated with the Bronze Age
but were also in use in the Neolithic, Iron Age
and Anglo-Saxon periods. back to top
C
Cairn
A heap of stones, often specifically deposited
to cover a burial. In some cases the cairns are
simply the result of clearing stones from agricultural
fields. The monument is typical of the Bronze
Age period.
Celtic Heads
Celtic Heads are an unusual monument from the Iron
Age and Romano-British period. The heads are
carved from stone and usually appear to be males
with broad foreheads and pointed chins. Their
eyes are usually protruding and fish shaped and
they have slight noses and thin lips. Additional
detail often includes horns or moustaches. Celtic
heads are poorly understood but it is thought
that they represent a pagan god and may have
been set on an altar.
Cist
Pronounced ‘Kist’. A cist is a stone
lined grave, usually rectangular in plan with a
capping stone. These cists may or may not have
been part of a burial mound. Cist burials are common
in the Bronze Age and Romano-British periods.
Context
Usually a detailed description of the exact location
of an artefact or archaeological feature which
demonstrates its provenance and its association
with other remains.
Cremation
The act of burning the dead before disposal. The
ashes are then scattered or buried, often in
an urn. This type of burial rite becomes common
in the Bronze Age and was also used in the Roman
and Anglo-Saxon periods.
Crop Mark
Cereals growing over archaeological features ripen
at different rates. Where there are buried pits
and gullies the crops darken and ripen earlier
as there is greater moisture content in the ground.
Where crops grow over buried walls they become
deprived of nutrients and the crops are thinner
and lighter in colour. These patterns are particularly
apparent from the air.
Cup and ring marks
These rock carvings consist of a hemispherical
depression, or cup, cut into a flat surface,
often surrounded by a series of concentric rings.
Designs are often connected by grooves. These
Bronze Age carvings remain a mystery and their
meaning is not properly understood. back to top
D
Dark Ages
This term is used to describe the Anglo-Saxon period
between the Roman and Medieval periods. It was
traditionally thought that this period represented
a regression in achievement when compared to
the preceding Roman period. This view is no longer
popularly supported as rich and diverse Anglo-Saxon
sites continue to surprise us with a wealth of
culture and finds.
Dendrochronology
The study of tree-ring patterns which can be used
as the basis for dating a site or assessing its
environment.
Domesday Book
Pronounced ‘Doomsday Book’. William
the Conqueror was a great organiser and established
a survey of his new kingdom following his successful
invasion in 1066 AD. The survey began in 1080 AD
and recorded the size and value of every manor
in the land. As William had ransacked most of the
North-East in his Harrying of the North, most Teesside
settlements are recorded as ‘Waste’.
Despite William’s best efforts he never really
took complete control of ancient Northumberland
and the Tees remained a serious obstacle. For this
reason settlements to the north of the river were
not assessed. back to top
E
Environmental archaeology
The reconstruction of human use of plants and animals
and the adaptation of humans to changing environmental
conditions.
Excarnation
The process of leaving a body to decay fully before
its burial. The corpse would literally be left
to the elements, often on a specially constructed
platform, until all the soft tissue had been
removed. This ritual was observed in the Neolithic
period with the bones being later transferred
to a communal tomb such as a long barrow.
Excavation
The principal archaeological technique for recovering
information about the past. Excavation involves
the systematic removal of deposits of soil and
other material and making detailed records of
the results. back to top
F
Field system
A group of fields arranged for convenience of use
and marked out by permanent boundaries. These
fields may be extremely ancient in origin from
the Bronze Age onwards.
Fieldwalking
The systematic recovery and recording of artefacts
recovered from ploughed field surfaces. The study
of the resulting assemblage can give an indication
of the location of new sites or help to define
the limits or chronology of a particular site.
Flint
A hard glassy rock which flakes easily and can
be worked to produce a sharp cutting edge. Used
in prehistoric times for the manufacture of tools
and weapons such as scrapers and arrowheads. back to top
G
Geomagnetic survey
This is one of the suite of techniques used in
geophysical survey. A fluxgate gradiometer is
used to detect changes in the magnetic susceptibility
of the earth. It is particularly useful for detecting
areas of burning such as furnaces and cut features
such as pits and ditches.
Geophysical survey
This term relates to a suite of archaeological
techniques used to remotely detect sites without
need for excavation. These techniques include
geomagnetic survey and resistivity survey.
GIS (Geographic Information System)
GIS is a system for viewing and manipulating map
based information on a personal computer. Archaeologists
use it to plot the distribution of archaeological
sites and to investigate patterns and trends
within the data. back to top
H
Harrying of the North
Following the Norman Conquest there was great resistance
to Norman rule, particularly in the North. William
the Conqueror put down this resistance by sending
his troops to burn whole villages to the ground.
This chain of events became known as the Harrying
of the North.
Hillfort
The hillfort is a settlement sited on a hilltop
defended by one or more lines of ramparts. Hillfort
building began in the British Isles from about
800 BC and continued up to the Roman Conquest.
Historical research
Many past cultures left written records behind
them. In the British Isles this is particularly
relevant to the study of medieval and post medieval
archaeology.
Hoard
A deliberately buried group of valuable items often
buried for security in a time of conflict or
war and never retrieved. Coin hoards are common
for all periods with monetary currency. Hoards
of Bronze Age metalwork, although rare, are a
primary source of evidence for the period.
Hunter-gatherers
A term describing a society whose main sources
of food are hunted wild animals and gathered
wild fruits, nuts and other edible plants. Seafood
was probably also very important in a hunter-gatherer’s
diet. This lifestyle is still carried on in some
cultures such as the Native Americans, Kalahari
Bushmen and Australian Aborigines. In the British
Isles this was the primary mode of subsistence
in the Mesolithic period.
Hut circle
A hut circle is the archaeological evidence for
a former round house. These buildings usually
leave a circle of stone, row of post holes or
drainage gully as evidence of their former presence. back to top
I
Inhumation
The burial of a complete unburnt corpse.
Iron Age
A time period covering the years from about 700
BC to 50 AD. The Iron Age lies between the Bronze
Age and the Roman Invasion. In Europe the Iron
Age is characterised by the introduction of Iron
tools and weapons. Iron Age people became increasingly
territorial and defended their settlements from
attack. The most distinctive monument type of
the period is the hillfort. These forts usually
defend a natural promontory with one or more
series of ditches, banks and ramparts.
Ironstone
Ironstone was the basis of the industrial revolution
on Teesside. Vast seams of ironstone underlie
much of East Cleveland and it was mined industrially
from 1850. back to top
J
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K
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L
Long Barrow
The characteristic type of Neolithic burial mound
in the area. Long Barrows consist of a long trapezoidal
or rectangular mound of earth and stone with
an entrance at one of the short ends. The entrance
passage leads to a central chamber of wood or
stone in which the human remains were deposited.
The central chamber may have a number of linked
side chambers. The entrance to the monument may
have been particularly ceremonial. There is often
evidence for a forecourt where ritual activity
took place. back to top
M
Medieval
The time period covering the Viking and Norman
rule from about 800 AD to 1600 AD. This is a
particularly important period of history when
many of the major settlements of Teesside were
formalised.
Mesolithic
A time period covering the years from about 12,000
BC to 3,200 BC. Mesolithic literally means ‘Middle
Stone Age’ and lies between the Palaeolithic
(Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone
Age). In Europe the Mesolithic is characterised
by hunter-gatherers who moved around the landscape
to exploit wild resources using flint tools often
dominated by microliths.
Microlith
A small stone tool, usually made of flint or chert,
consisting of a segment of blade blunted on one
or both sides and hafted into an arrow shaft
or handle as a projectile or other tool. The
first half of the Mesolithic is characterised
by larger and more robust microliths. These become
smaller and more geometric in shape later in
the period. The very late Mesolithic has exceptionally
small microliths known as microlithic rods.
Midden
The accumulation of debris and domestic waste resulting
from human occupation. Middens can often be extremely
well stratified and often preserve excellent
environmental and organic remains. back to top
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N
Neolithic
A time period covering the years from about 3,200BC
to 1,800 BC. Neolithic literally means ‘New
Stone Age’ and lies between the Mesolithic
(Middle Stone Age) and the Bronze Age. In Europe
the Neolithic is characterised by the advent
of farming. This led to a more settled way of
life with permanent villages and the building
of stone monuments such as stone circles and
chambered tombs.
Norman Conquest
In 1066 AD King Edward, the last Anglo-Danish leader
died without an heir. Harold, Earl of Wessex
was proclaimed King. Although Harold beat the
King of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge
he himself was defeated at the Battle of Hastings
by William of Normandy. William became the first
Norman King of England and is better known as
William the Conqueror. back to top
O
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P
Palaeolithic
The time period covering the years before about
12,000 BC to three and a half million years ago.
Palaeolithic literally means ‘Old Stone
Age’ and is succeeded by the Mesolithic
(Middle Stone Age). During the Palaeolithic much
of Northern Europe was still covered with ice
and sites of this period in North-East England
are extremely rare. On Teesside we have records
of finds of fossilised bones of Palaeolithic
animals such as woolly rhino and mammoth but
so far no evidence of human activity has been
identified. Elsewhere human activity is recognised
in the form of some of the earliest stone tools
such as hand-axes and magnificent cave paintings
such as those in southern France.
Pillbox
During World War II, Britain created a network
of anti-invasion defences. The Pillbox was a
static defended outpost usually with a good vantage
of a road junction, railway or the coast. Pillboxes
were hurriedly built to fairly standard designs
from poured concrete with small embrasures for
observation and shooting. They usually take the
form of small, single roomed, hexagonal, square
or rectangular flat roofed buildings. Common
features include internal blast walls, gun shelves
and iron pig-tail rods used to fasten barbed
wire.
Prehistory
The period of human history before the advent of
written records. In the British Isles this comprises
the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze
Age and all but the later parts of the Iron Age
which were described by the Romans.
Prone burials
On rare occasions burials are made face down or
prone. This has been noted in Anglo-Saxon cemeteries
in the area. It is possible that these people
were buried alive or treated with purposeful
disregard. back to top
Q
Quern
Pronounced ‘kwern’. A shaped stone use for milling grain. Earlier
querns (Neolithic and Bronze Age) take the form of a ‘saddle’ which
forms a rubbing surface against which grain is hand milled with a separate hand
held rubbing stone. Later querns are known as ‘rotary’ or ‘beehive’ querns.
These consist of a round bottom stone with a conical top stone above. The conical
top stone has a perforated centre allowing grain to be fed through which is ground
between the two stones when the top stone is turned by means of a handle. back to top
R
Radio-Carbon Dating
A scientific dating method that measures the decay
of the radioactive isotope Carbon-14. Carbon-14
is present in all organic material and its rate
of decay can be calculated. As Carbon-14 only
begins to decay once the organism has died, it
can be used to accurately estimate the age of
an object or archaeological layer. Items that
are commonly dated are bones and wood samples.
Resistivity Survey
A technique of Geophysical survey that measures
changes in the conductivity of the soil by passing
an electrical current through it. Changes in
conductivity are usually caused by differing
groundwater content. By plotting these changes
over a grid it is possible to detect buried features.
For example a buried wall will be a less moist
area than a backfilled ditch which will contain
looser and more organic material.
Roman Period
England was under Roman control for 350 years from
the mid 1st century AD to around 400 AD. There
are few bona-fide Roman sites in Teesside and
the term Romano-British is more commonly used
to describe sites of this period.
Romano-British
The term Romano-British is used to distinguish
native sites in use during the Roman occupation.
Many distinctly Roman sites are known in the
North-East including forts, signal stations and
villas. However the majority of sites of the
period are native and continued in much the same
pattern of use as they had in the Iron Age. The
natives obviously interacted with the Romans
and we find luxury Roman imports on native sites
which were traded for staple resources such as
grain and meat.
Round Barrow
The common type of Bronze Age burial mound. This
usually consists of a central cist or cremation
burial with an overlying mound of earth and stone.
The perimeter of the mound is often defined or
supported with a stone kerb. There may have originally
been an outer ditch to the mound which has usually
silted up. back to top
S
Samian Ware
A distinctive red, highly polished earthenware pottery mass-produced in between
100AD and 300AD mainly in Roman Gaul. This pottery is often highly decorated
with figures, animals and geometric designs.
Scrapers
A common flint tool used for processing animal
skins and meat. The scraper is usually a flat
disc or crescent of flint with one or more
worked scraping edges. Signal Stations
In the late Roman period the Romans were under
increasing pressure from seaward invasion along
the coast. Signal stations were set up at intervisible
points along the north-east coast, certainly
from Saltburn to Filey, to give advance warning
of attack. The signal stations consisted of stone
towers holding beacons which were defended with
a small fort
Sites and Monuments Record
The Sites and Monuments Record is a computerised
database of all archaeological sites in the area.
It is principally used by researchers and for
development control purposes.
Stratigraphy
The study of a series of layers of archaeological
deposits. The assumption is usually made that
the vertical section can be considered a slice
through time demonstrated by various horizontal
layers. The deepest of these layers in a simple
stratigraphic section would normally be the earliest.
It is often possible to date these horizontal
layers by artefact content.
Stone Age
This is a general term for the earlier part of
prehistory before the discovery of metalworking.
The Stone Age is subdivided into the Palaeolithic,
Mesolithic and Neolithic periods.
Stone axeheads
These are a common find from the Neolithic period.
A number of centres around the British Isles
and further afield produced stone axeheads. Examinations
of the axeheads can usually identify the exact
source of the parent rock. Greenstone axeheads
from the Langdale area of the Lake District were
particularly well distributed across the country. back to top
T
Tumuli
See Burial Mound
Typology
The systematic organisation of artefacts into chronological
types based on their shared attributes such as
shape or material. One of the earliest archaeological
typologies was the Three Age system developed
by Thomsen, a Danish scholar, in the 1830s. Thomsen
argued that prehistoric material could be split
into finds from the Stone Age, Bronze Age and
Iron Age based principally on their raw materials.
This was somewhat of a breakthrough at the time
and the terms are still in current use today. back to top
U
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V Vikings
Viking raids began in England in the 8th century
AD. The monastery at Lindisfarne was attacked
in 793AD and most of the north was under Viking
control within 100 years.
Villas
Villas were Roman mansions or country houses with
a surrounding estate. They were built to a regular
plan and often had luxury features such as bathhouses,
under floor heating and mosaic floors. This way
of life was soon copied by native Britons who
gravitated towards this Roman ideal, although
their attempts at this gentrification were rather
more humble. back to top
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